The 20th century has become the most remarkable century in the political history of mankind. It was a time when many countries gained independence. It was also the century in which global institutions such as the UN, IMF and WTO were created. These institutions have become more powerful than any nation or alliance of nations. Prior to the formation of these institutions, the world was ruled and controlled by a few countries that used colonial methods of domination over other peoples. Power and control were military, political, economic and cultural. For a century in recent history, there has been the building, rise and fall of the most powerful colonial empires. Today I would like to talk to you, my dear reader, about these superpowers.

Austro-Hungarian Empire

At the beginning of the century, the Austro-Hungarian Empire was the largest political center in continental Europe. It occupied most of Central Europe, covering almost 700,000 square kilometers. There were 11 main ethno-speaking groups in the empire: Germans, Hungarians, Poles, Czechs, Ukrainians, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, Serbs, Italians and Romanians. After the First World War, the Austro-Hungarian Empire broke up into separate parts, and lost almost 75 percent of its former land, which was then divided between Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland and Italy. Austria and Hungary were deliberately left economically and militarily weak to prevent them from threatening Europe in the future.

Encyclopedia Britannica

Italian Empire

Italy was the last state to join the fight for Africa and could only take what others had left. It controlled an area of ​​about 780,000 square miles and a population of over one and a half million people. Its main colonies were Eritrea and Libya. Libya was the largest and most important of the Italian colonies. Italy also controlled Rhodes, the Dodecanese, and a small area of ​​Tianjin in China. The last Italian acquisition was Albania in 1939. After World War II, most of the Italian land was taken over by the British. This led to the end of the Italian colonial empire.

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German colonial empire

Germany was late in acquiring colonies, but could still make small plans. In Africa, Germany acquired Cameroon, Tanzania, Namibia and Togo. She also ventured into the South Pacific, acquiring northeastern New Guinea, the Bismarck Archipelago, and island groups to the northeast such as the Carolinas, Marianas, Marshalls, Samoa, and Nauru. In addition, Germany captured the Chinese port city of Tsingtau. After the First World War, its colonies, especially in Africa, were taken over by Great Britain. Japan seized land in the Pacific. The German colonial empire collapsed after its defeat in the First World War, and after the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on January 10, 1920.

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Portuguese Empire

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to claim territory in sub-Saharan Africa. However, Portugal had a small territory and a weak economy, which was further weakened by several years of war. Its colonies included Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, Sao Tome and Principe, Goa, East Timor and Macau. In 1961, India took Goa from the Portuguese and annexed it to its territory. In 1974, a new government appeared in Portugal. It granted independence to Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Sao Tome and Principe, Cape Verde and East Timor in 1975. Macau was the last country to leave the empire after being handed over to China in 1999.

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Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire has controlled much of the Middle East and North Africa since the early 16th century. The headquarters was located in Constantinople (later renamed Istanbul), Turkey. At the beginning of the First World War, there was an uprising of the population of the empire, and the rebels received support from Britain and France to fight against the government of the empire. After the war, a treaty was signed between the military allies and the Ottoman Empire. Under the treaty, Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Jordan and Iraq departed to France and Britain. The Greeks took control of eastern Thrace and Ionia (western Anatolia), while the Italians gained the Dodecanese and a zone of influence in southwestern Anatolia. The Armenians were given the right to create an independent state, which was most of eastern Anatolia. The empire officially dissolved on 1 November 1922 when Türkiye was declared a republic.

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Japanese empire

Between 1868 and the middle of the 20th century, Japan created a huge empire that stretched from Alaska to Singapore. It controlled as much territory and as many people as any of the great powers of Europe. The empire included: Korea, China, Taiwan, Manchuria, Shandong, the entire China coast, the Philippines and the Dutch East Indies. As part of the victorious Allies in World War I, Japan received the Asian colonial territories of Germany. They consisted of Qingdao, on the Chinese peninsula of Shandong, and the former Germanic islands in Micronesia. Japan's persecution for more land in China and its tripartite treaty with Germany and Italy led to World War II. Japan lost and surrendered the colonies in 1945.

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french empire

By the time of World War II, the French empire was the only world empire comparable to the British. It covered over five million square miles with a population of 65 million. France had over 15 colonies in Africa. In Southeast Asia, the French owned Indochina. In the Pacific, France occupied Tahiti and various Caribbean island groups. After World War I, she received Syria and Lebanon from the Ottomans and parts of Togo and Cameroon from the Germans. The French colonial empire began to fall apart during World War II when various parts of its empire were occupied by other powers such as Japan, Britain, the US and Germany. Many French colonies gained independence between the 1950s and 1960s.

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Russian empire

The Russian Empire stretched from the Baltic Sea and of Eastern Europe to the Pacific Ocean. It controlled about one-sixth of the earth's land mass and had a population of about 128 million. Russia had the largest army in Europe, numbering 1.5 million people, and could increase it four or five times by calling up reservists and conscripts. The First World War was the main reason for the collapse of the Russian Empire. Millions of people died, industrial enterprises were closed, famine set in. The war also changed the map of Europe. It led to Russia losing control over Poland, Finland, Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia. Emperor Nicholas II was overthrown by the Bolsheviks, who later created a new empire - the USSR.

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Soviet Union

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) emerged after the October Revolution of 1917. The Union had control over a multi-ethnic society that was larger than that of the Russian Empire. He also had great military power. The Soviet Union underwent mass industrialization in the 1930s, which made it a world superpower. The 1980s saw a rapid economic downturn and loss of leadership that sparked a series of independence movements. The Baltic countries such as Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia were the first to declare independence. Then in December 1991, Ukraine, the Russian Federation, Belarus, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan seceded from the USSR. Georgia was the only country that lasted longer, but it seceded two years later.

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british empire

At its peak in 1920, the British Empire was the largest officially recognized empire in the world. It controlled 14 million square miles of territory, which was about one quarter of the earth's surface. It owned territories on every continent and had between 400 and 500 million people under its control, dominating global affairs. The main reason for Britain's dominance was its industrial development and technological innovation. In the second half of the 20th century, many countries gained independence from Great Britain. The decline in her preeminence is attributed to World War II, during which she accumulated many debts and could no longer afford such imperial appetites. The collapse of the empire was facilitated by the growth of the economy and political influence of the United States and Russia, which today are world superpowers opposing each other.

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What this confrontation will lead to, only God knows. It remains for us, dear reader, to keep our minds, showing patience, mercy, love for our loved ones and asking the Lord to endow with reason those people who are involved in this confrontation today. May there always be blue skies and bright sun above us! See you.

TO beginningXX century Western European civilization spread its influence far beyond the borders of Europe. A special Western world, or the West, began to take shape, which included not only Western Europe, but also North America (USA, Canada), as well as countries in other regions of the planet (Australia, New Zealand). The characteristic features of this world were the industrial market economy, respect for private property, the presence of civil society. The inhabitants of the Western countries were characterized by individualism, rationalism and faith in scientific and technological progress.

Feudal monarchies are in the past. Liberal constitutions were adopted in most Western countries, and democratically elected parliaments appeared. The number of voters has increased. So, as a result of the struggle for their rights by 1920, women got the opportunity to participate in elections in most countries Western Europe and North America.

Recognized in the Western world principles of the rule of law- democracy, observance of basic civil rights, pluralism of opinions, equality of all people before the law. The atmosphere of free competition has become characteristic not only for the market economy, but also for political life. The state increasingly abstained from interfering in the private life of citizens, recognized and supported the rights and freedoms of the individual, which were now considered more important than the interests of the state. The principles of liberal democracy were affirmed.

Changes resulting from industrial revolution affected not only production. The life of people has improved. Agriculture was no longer the dominant sector of the economy. It seemed that the threat of crop failures and famine had disappeared forever. European states began to actively pursue social policies: the standard of living of the population increased, working conditions and living conditions of workers improved - wages increased, working hours were reduced to 9-11 hours, in some European countries laws on pension and medical insurance appeared -nii workers. The trade unions have achieved significant success in protecting the interests of hired workers. In the UK, they have become an influential political force. Positive changes in the social sphere and the rapid development of technology, which changed everyday life before our eyes, inspired people with hope for a prosperous future.

industrial revolution led to significant changes in the composition of peoples and their settlement. People from rural areas and small towns moved to large cities, which became centers of industrial production. The growth of a new social stratum accelerated - the middle class, which included employees, the petty bourgeoisie, officers, people of creative professions with a high level of education, who had social activity, prestige in society, but at the same time did not have significant property. It was the representatives of the middle class that became the backbone of liberal democracy, since they were interested in the stability of the state and the implementation of gradual reforms.

The industrial proletariat at the beginning of the twentieth century. became more educated, he possessed higher professional skills than the working class of the previous century. The most qualified of its representatives in terms of living standards approached the middle class. They were also more interested in the evolutionary, reformist development of society than in revolutionary upheavals. Their interests in Western Europe were represented by large branch trade unions. material from the site

At the same time, the establishment of democratic principles in the life of Western society was not final. In many countries, remnants of traditional relations were preserved, social problems did not lose their acuteness.

started 20th century became the time of the formation of a new planetary civilization that engulfed the whole world. Revolutions and conflicts became an essential feature of the world development of this period.

On this page, material on the topics:

· The rapid development of the economy after the unification of the country in 1871, in terms of economic development, Germany was second only to the United States;

· The volume of industrial production before the First World War increased 6 times;

· During the first decade of the 20th century, the country ranked 1st in Europe in terms of economic indicators;

· Development of new industries: mechanical engineering, electric power, chemical, electrotechnical;

· Power plants have increased 100 times;

Length railways increased by 33 times;

· High concentration of production: the number of enterprises with more than 1 thousand employees has doubled and accounted for half of all German enterprises;

Monopolization of the economy: at the end of the XIX century - 70 cartels, in 1900 - 300 associations, in 1914 - 600. The Rhine-Westphalian coal syndicate controlled 95% of production, the F. Krupp concern owned 9 banks that owned 50% of the bills market 83% of bank capital;

· Junker landownership (large, landlord) made it possible to widely use the latest achievements in agricultural technology and increase the yield of grain crops and potatoes;

· Militarization of the economy: military spending increased by 33% and accounted for half of the state budget, the army consisted of 666 thousand people, built 232 new warships.

The political structure of the state and domestic politics.

The German Empire is a union state consisting of 22 monarchies and 3 free cities.

The Imperial Constitution was adopted in 1871.

The King of Prussia is the German Emperor (Kaiser), the commander-in-chief of the army.

The legislature (parliament) consisted of two chambers:

Reichstag - an elected body, 58 seats, 17 of which belonged to Prussia;

Bundesrat - a meeting of representatives of the members of the union, not elected.

Executive agency(government) was headed by a chancellor appointed by the king.

Chancellor B von Bülow (1900-1909) pursued the "unification policy" of two influential forces in society - the junkers (hereditary landowners) and the big bourgeoisie.

· Entrepreneurship support;

· Adoption of new customs tariffs: duties on imports of wheat were doubled, which led to an increase in the profits of landowners;

· 1908 law "On Youth and Assemblies" - a ban on participation in political activities of young people under 18 years of age;

· Active propaganda preparation for war, the creation of naval and military alliances, colonial brotherhoods;

· The growing popularity of social democratic ideas in society: in 1912 the SPD (Social Democratic Party of Germany) won 4.5 million votes and formed the largest faction in the Reichstag;

Formation of directions in the SPD:

The revisionists (E. Bernstein) - a reformist direction, called for the use of legal parliamentary forms of struggle for the interests of employees, creating alliances with bourgeois parties;

Revolutionaries (K. Liebknecht and R. Luxembourg) - left direction, supporters of radical actions, called for revolution;

Centrists (K. Kautsky) - suggested using the parliament to their advantage and acting as an independent political force, without entering into alliances with other parties.

Foreign policy.

After the accession to the throne of Kaiser Wilhelm II, Germany's foreign policy sharply intensified and changed its direction.

· Trade expansion in Europe, search for "new independent places";

· Striving for the redistribution of the world, an active colonial policy, tk. Germany's colonial possessions were 20 times smaller than those of Great Britain;

· The desire to gain a foothold in the Middle East: 1899 construction of the Berlin-Baghdad railway;

The penetration of German capital into the Balkans and Mesopotamia

· Aggravation of Anglo-German contradictions: by 1898 Germany had created a powerful navy, thereby challenging the "mistress of the seas".

France

Economic development:

· The consequences of the defeat in the Franco-Prussian war: the loss of Alsace and Lorraine;

· Preservation a large number small (up to 10 employees) enterprises;

· Agrarian nature of the economy: 43% of the population is employed in agriculture;

· Weak technical equipment of agriculture and economy;

The population grew slowly

· Industrial growth rates are low – 2.5% per year;

· Fast growth new industries: aircraft manufacturing, automotive, chemical and electrical industries;

· Development of the banking sector: France is a world creditor;

· Concentration of capital: 5 largest banks concentrated 2/3 of the total amount of all bank deposits, 200 shareholders of the "French Bank" controlled almost the entire economy of the country.;

· The export of capital from the country: 2nd place in the world after Great Britain, 4 times the volume of capital investments in the French industry;

· In agriculture, mainly small farms;

The exploitation of the colonies.

State structure France under the Constitution of 1875 (Third Republic)

In the localities, power belonged to the prefects, who were appointed by the government. multi-party system. About a dozen parties and groups sat in parliament, creating blocs and temporary alliances. Such blocks were unstable and therefore from 1900 to 1914 13 governments were replaced in France.

An important element of French policy at the beginning of the century was the idea of ​​revenge for losing the Franco-Prussian war. Purpose: a new victorious war, the return of Alsace and Lorraine.

At the beginning of the century, the most popular are the radicals (left Republicans) and right Republicans (moderates).

The radical party (leader Georges Clemenceau) defended the interests of the republic, private property, fought against the dominance of the church, demanded the nationalization of large monopolies, the introduction of a progressive income tax. In 1902, the Left Bloc, which included radicals and socialists, won the election:

separation of church from state and school;

law on pensions (appointment of pensions upon reaching 65 years of age)

Rise of labor movement:

Creation of "federations" - trade unions of workers in one industry

"labor exchanges" - unions of workers of different specialties of the same city;

"General Confederation of Labor" - the union of all "federations" and "labor exchanges".

Foreign policy: rapprochement with the UK

Germany is a "hereditary enemy"

Expansion of colonial holdings

Austro-Hungary

Economic development:

· Uneven development of different regions of the country: the most industrially developed Austria and the Czech Republic;

· German firms and banks invested significant capital in the economy of Austria-Hungary, receiving excess profits;

· High standard of living for the inhabitants of Prague, Vienna, Budapest: water treatment, trams, street lighting with gas and electric lamps;

Low level of technical equipment of agriculture

Ukrainian lands within Austria-Hungary:

Development of economic sectors related to metalworking, mechanical engineering, oil production (5% of world production), woodworking;

Advantage Hungarian, German and French industrial companies;

Large landholdings belonged to Hungarian, Romanian and Polish owners.

To understand what happened to Russia in the 20th century, it is necessary to know about the international situation in the period under review. If earlier foreign policy aspects were extremely important for understanding the history of the Russian state, which was both a colony of the Golden Horde and an empire that included the main possessions of the Golden Horde (we can also recall the Commonwealth here), then the 20th century became a time of globalization, a time of formation of a completely new world reality.

Since ancient times, mankind has known such a form of government as an empire, uniting within its borders state formations with different levels of cultural, political and economic development. Many of the conquerors of the ancient world dreamed of creating a world empire. But only by the beginning of the 20th century did the historical and economic prerequisites for real opportunity her creation.

In the 20th century, 3 main attempts to create world empires can be distinguished:

1. British Empire;

2. The state of the world dictatorship of the proletariat (with its center in Soviet Russia);

3. Hitler's Germany.

Each of them had its own characteristics. With regard to the fourth attempt (USA), which has its development in the 21st century, it should be noted that, due to the process of historical development, it has largely taken on other forms.

The emergence at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. imperialism of a new type was associated, first of all, with the emergence of various kinds of monopolies. As V.I. Lenin, by the beginning of the 20th century, “the concentration has reached the point where it is possible to make an approximate account of all sources of raw materials (for example, iron ore lands) throughout the world. Such accounting is not only carried out, but these sources are seized in one hand by gigantic monopoly unions. An approximate calculation is made of the size of the market, which these unions “divide” among themselves, by contractual agreement.”

Banks are of particular importance in an imperialist world. “The monopoly grew out of the banks. They have been transformed from humble intermediary enterprises into monopolists of finance capital. Some three or five of the largest banks in any of the most advanced capitalist nations have effected a "personal union" of industrial and banking capital, have concentrated in their hands the disposal of billions and billions, which make up the bulk of the capital and money income of an entire country. The financial oligarchy, which imposes a dense network of relations of dependence on all, without exception, the economic and political institutions of modern bourgeois society - this is the most prominent manifestation of this monopoly.

On the example of the British Empire and the USA, we can see a convincing confirmation of these words of V.I. Lenin. And Hitler's coming to power in Germany was impossible without the initial support of his magnates of capital, from whose dependence he later freed himself. However, it is characteristic that in Soviet Russia, where the most irreconcilable critic of monopolies created a monopoly of the ruling party on all state resources, including human resources, all banks were state-owned and played only executive functions.

Imperialism causes some monopolies to turn into supranational formations that can dictate certain conditions to their governments. The monopoly of power was not among the subjects considered by theorists of the doctrine of imperialism in the early 20th century, but it is a necessary condition for the creation of a world empire. And if the closed societies and clubs of the British Empire, and at a later time - the United States, show us a covert example of the monopolization of power by supra-governmental structures, then the ruling parties of the USSR and Nazi Germany already clearly reflect it.

The globalization of the economy at the beginning of the 20th century served the process of creating a single world market. In his book "Imperialism", written in 1902, D.A. Hobson spoke about the existence of prerequisites for the start of a world war - the British Empire was losing its power, a new center of power arose - a united Germany, which was late for the imperialist division of the world and now wanted a redistribution of spheres of influence. The military and economic power of the British Empire was clearly not enough to preserve the vast territories it had captured. Meanwhile, new states appeared, pursuing an active imperialist policy and desiring a redistribution of the world. IN AND. Lenin, whose work "Imperialism as the Highest Stage of Capitalism" was written shortly before the start of the war, directly wrote that fast development imperialism led world war: « capitalists now not only is there something to fight about, but also can't help but to fight, because without a violent redistribution of the colonies new imperialist countries cannot get the privileges enjoyed by the older ones ( and less strong) imperialist powers".

IN AND. Lenin and N.I. Bukharin, even on the eve of the First World War, raised the question of the possibility of a transition of power to the “working class”, or rather, to those political forces that acted on the world stage on its behalf, which were another form of monopolists - monopolists of the "brand" "working class", and who attempted to use the world war to create a world state of the dictatorship of the proletariat..

Thus, this war was associated not only with the desire to redistribute markets and spheres of influence, but also with the possible transfer of power to new political forces, positioning themselves as a “proletariat”, wishing to subjugate all spheres of human life. At the same time, in 1914, K. Kautsky put forward the theory of ultra-imperialism, which denies Lenin's proposition that imperialism is the last stage in the development of capitalism, the eve of the social revolution of the proletariat, recognizing the possibility of the next phase of the development of capitalism following imperialism, which is called ultra-imperialism.

On the political map of the world at the beginning of the 20th century, confirmation of the words of D.A. Hobson that “the peculiarity of modern imperialism, viewed from a political point of view, lies mainly in the fact that it is simultaneously carried out by several peoples. The presence of a number of competing states in this respect is a completely new phenomenon. The basic idea of ​​empire in the ancient and medieval sense of the word was a federation of states under the hegemony of one of them, embracing the entire known and recognized world, as understood by Rome in its term "pax romana". When Roman citizens, with full civil rights, were found throughout the known world, both in Africa and Asia, as well as in Gaul and Britain, imperialism contained a genuine element of internationalism. Empire was identified with internationalism, although it was not always based on the idea of ​​the equality of peoples. “Modern imperialism differs from the imperialism of the past, firstly, in that the ambitious desire to create a single mighty empire has given way to the theory and practice of rival empires, each of which is seized by the same desires for political expansion and commercial gain; secondly, the predominance of financial interests, the interests of money capital, over purely commercial interests.

The ideology of Nazi Germany was based on the processes denounced at the beginning of the 20th century by R. Hilferding: “The ideal now is to ensure domination of the world by our own nation: the desire is as boundless as the desire of capital for profit from which it arises. Capital becomes the conqueror of the world, but each time it conquers a new country, it conquers only a new frontier which must be pushed further. ... the national idea reflects the economic preference for monopoly in the privileged position that should belong to one's own nation. The latter is chosen among all the others. Since the subjugation of foreign nations is carried out by force, and therefore in a very natural way, it seems as if a sovereign nation owes its domination to its special natural properties, i.e. their racial characteristics. Thus, in racial ideology, the striving of finance capital for power acquires a shell of natural-scientific validity, its actions acquire, thanks to this, the appearance of a natural-scientific conditionality and necessity. The ideal of democratic equality was replaced by the ideal of oligarchic domination.

At first glance, it might seem that against the background of the harsh dictatorships that existed in Nazi Germany and the USSR, the British Empire, which covered a quarter of the land, was a place of people's prosperity. Speaking about the position of its dominions, K. Kautsky wrote that their population has more rights than in European democracies: “Strictly speaking, these are not even colonies. These are independent states with modern democracy, ie. nation-states enjoying greater freedoms than any other European state, with the exception of Switzerland. They do not really represent possessions subject to England, but are in alliance with her, forming with her an alliance of states with a rapidly growing population and, consequently, also a growing power. This union of states is a state destined to play a major role in the future. If they see in it the signs and purpose of imperialism, then we can hardly have anything against such imperialism.

However, K. Kautsky saw the benefit of British imperialism even for India. And this despite the fact that “the British came out victorious over their European rivals and native states. The Europeans did not come to India, like the former conquerors, with the aim of settling there. This was hindered by the mere fact that the climate there is deadly for them. Everyone came there for the sake of booty, with which he then returned to Europe. The new conquerors oppressed the working masses much more than the former despots. The country was falling into ever greater decline, and only in recent decades did the British government begin to take care to counteract this decline.

Imperialist policies had a devastating effect on ancient Chinese culture as well. As Rosa Luxembourg wrote, "the opening of China to trade, which began with a war over opium, ended with a whole series of" leases "and the Chinese expedition of 1900, in which the trading interests of European capital turned into an obvious international robbery of Chinese lands" . “Each war was accompanied by looting and theft on a large scale of ancient cultural monuments, which were carried out by European cultural traders in Chinese imperial palaces and government buildings. This took place both in 1860, when the imperial palace with its fabulous treasures was robbed by the French, and in 1900, when "all nations" stole state and private property for distillation. The smoking ruins of the largest and oldest cities, the death of agriculture on vast expanses of land, the unbearable tax burden for finding military indemnities were companions of all European invasions and kept pace with the success of trade.

On closer examination, we will see that the theorists of imperialism assumed the inevitable creation of a single state in the future, the difference was only in what they saw as the form of governing it.

Theorists of imperialism in the early 20th century

IN AND. Lenin gives a table reflecting the state of world empires before the start of the First World War.

Colonial possessions of the great powers (million square kilometers and million inhabitants)

					metropolises
Germany
Total 6 Great Powers
Colonies of other powers (Belgium, Holland, etc.)
Semi-colonies (Persia, China, Türkiye)
Other countries
The whole world

Analyzing this table, V.I. Lenin notes that “out of 75 million sq. kilometers all there are 65 million colonies in the world, i.e. 86% is concentrated in the hands of the six powers; 61 million, i.e. 81% is concentrated in the hands of the 3 powers.”

IN AND. Lenin believed that imperialism was a dying capitalism, he believed in the inevitability of a social revolution that would change the face of the whole world in the very near future. And it should be noted that he managed to become one of the founders of the state, which became an empire of a completely new type, unknown to history, that it was Lenin, as later I.V. Stalin was recognized as the leader of the world proletariat. But the Soviet Union, the state construction of which was carried out by I.V. Stalin, turned out to be, apparently, not at all the form of social structure that V.I. Lenin. The idea of ​​the world victory of the proletariat with the abolition of states and the location of the center of power in Moscow was never realized in practice. And the USSR turned out to be in fact the same imperial formation, just a completely different type than those that existed before it, and imperialism, which took on new forms, turned out to be much more vital than the idea of ​​social revolution, and, consequently, the opinion of V.I. Lenin about imperialism as dying capitalism turned out to be premature.

With the above information about the situation in the world as a whole, we can begin to consider the processes that began in Russia as a result of the February bourgeois revolution of 1917.

Sources

1. Bukharin N.I. World economy and imperialism (economic essay). M.-Pg., 1923

2. Bukharin N.I. Problems of the theory and practice of socialism. M., 1989

3. Hilferding R. Financial capital. The latest phase in the development of capitalism. M., 1924

4. Hobson D. Imperialism. Leningrad, 1927

5. Kautsky K. Imperialism // K. Kautsky. Democracy and socialism. Fragments of works of different years. M., 1991

6. Kautsky K. National state, imperialist state and union of states. M., 1917

7. Lenin V.I. Imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism // V.I. Lenin. Full composition of writings. Fifth edition. Volume 27. M., 1962

8. Lenin V.I. Full composition of writings. Volume 28. Notebooks on imperialism. M., 1962

There. S. 50

Luxembourg R. Accumulation of capital. Volume I and II Moscow-Leningrad, 1934. S. 279

Luxembourg R. Accumulation of capital. Volume I and II Moscow-Leningrad, 1934. S. 281

Lenin V.I. Imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism. S. 377

Lenin V.I. Imperialism as the highest stage of capitalism. S. 406

Let's start with production. As you already know, the rapid development of industry in the last decades of the XIX century. was accompanied by the appearance of new, technically more advanced and productive machines, Vehicle etc. This led to the enlargement of production.

Concentration of production and capital. Old and new leaders

In new branches of industry (automobile, chemical, electrical, etc.), in a relatively short period of time, the path from the first experiments in semi-handicraft workshops to the creation of powerful enterprises was traversed.

Let's take an example. In 1893, G. Ford tested his first car made in the workshop, which, according to him, "resembled a peasant cart." In 1903, the Ford Automobile Society was already founded, in 1906 the first three-story factory building was built. By the beginning of the First World War, Ford's enterprises had become a kind of empire with branches in England, Australia and other countries. It produced 248 thousand cars a year.

The data of the table tell about the growth of the automobile production of G. Ford.

The consolidation of enterprises, the concentration of industrial production occurred not only as a result of the development of technology. The point was also that in the conditions of rapid industrial growth, competition intensified. In order to strengthen their position in a particular industry, enterprises united in cartels, syndicates, and trusts. The degree of interaction between the participants in these associations varied. In cartels, for example, enterprises agreed on the volume of production, markets, prices for homogeneous products, but retained financial and production independence. And in trusts, they completely passed under a single management, became shareholders of one company. The purpose of these associations was to take a monopoly (one-man, dominant) position in their industry. Hence their common name - monopolies.

The recognized "country of trusts" was the United States of America. In 1900, monopoly associations, numerically accounting for 8% of all enterprises in this country, produced 59.9% of industrial output, and by 1913 they increased this figure to 80%. The largest of the monopolies often spread their power in several industries at once in order to control both the production and delivery of one product or another. So, the oil trust of the Rockefeller family "Standard Oil" by the beginning of the 20th century. controlled 90% of all oil production in the United States. In addition to oil fields, he owned 70 thousand km of oil pipelines, ocean steamers. Later, the trust included enterprises in the gas and electrical industries, factories for the production of non-ferrous metals, etc.

Similar phenomena have taken place in other countries. In Germany, two large companies - Siemens-Halske and the General Electricity Company (AEG) - produced about 2/3 of the products of the electrical industry, shipbuilding was also dominated by two companies - North German Lloyd and Hamburg-America. In the automotive industry in France, two powerful firms, Renault and Peugeot, set the tone. Along with the concentration of production there was a concentration of capital. In 1909, nine Berlin banks controlled 83% of the total financial capital of the country, at the same time in Great Britain 12 banks controlled 70% of the total banking capital.

The struggle between industrial and financial monopolies was not only for domestic, but also for foreign markets. The first places in terms of capital investment outside their countries at the beginning of the century were occupied by Great Britain and France. The British bourgeoisie preferred to invest in the colonies, where they could make big profits due to cheap raw materials and the merciless exploitation of labor. French capital was more often exported abroad in the form of loans at high interest rates. France, not without reason, was called the "usurer of Europe." By the beginning of World War I, Russia, Great Britain, Spain and other states were among the debtors of French banks.

At the beginning of the XX century. the uneven pace of development in the group of leading countries of the world became especially noticeable. The United States and Germany, which later embarked on the path of industrialization, were catching up with the traditional leaders, Great Britain and France, in many economic indicators. The United States has moved into first place in the world in steel smelting, coal and oil production, electricity production and copper smelting. Germany overtook Britain in steel and iron production.

Fight for a "place in the sun"

The growing economic power and interests of the monopolies pushed the new leaders to join the struggle for sources of raw materials and sales markets, for areas of profitable investment. The United States, late to the colonial division of the world, began to persistently seek and expand its zones of economic and political influence in different regions, primarily in Latin America.

At the end of the XIX century. Cuba, which was under the rule of Spain, attracted special attention of North American capital. The US monopolies almost completely controlled sugar production, the tobacco industry in Cuba, owned mines and railways. In April 1898, the United States demanded that Spain grant independence to Cuba. Spain refused. The Spanish-American War began. The clear superiority of the American fleet led to its speedy completion. Already in December 1898, a peace treaty was signed, according to which Spain renounced the rights to Cuba, Puerto Rico and other islands in the West Indies, as well as possessions in the Pacific Ocean - the islands of Guam and the Philippine Islands (before that, the United States seized more and the Hawaiian Islands).

Freed from colonial dependence, Cuba actually ended up under the control of the United States. In the Philippines, whose population had been fighting for independence for several years, American troops carried out merciless "pacification" actions. On the Hawaiian Islands, in the bay of Pearl Harbor, a large US military base was deployed. China also became an object of US interest, where it was proposed to pursue a policy of "open doors" (ie, the free operation of all foreign companies). At the beginning of the XX century. The United States has taken new steps to expand its influence in the world. They contributed to the declaration of independence of Panama (previously one of the provinces of Colombia). Immediately after this, an agreement was signed that granted the United States exclusive rights to the zone of the Isthmus of Panama, where it was planned to build a canal linking the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

Plans for the expansion of "living space", foreign expansion have been actively developed since the end of the 19th century. in Germany. The well-known politician B. von Bülow (in 1900-1909 - Chancellor of Germany), speaking in the Reichstag in 1897, said: “The times when the German ceded the land to one neighbor, the sea to another, leaving only the sky for himself ... - these times have passed ... We demand a place under the sun for ourselves. The plans didn't work out. In 1897, a German naval assault landed in the Chinese province of Shandong, and in next year a treaty was signed that turned this province into a German sphere of influence.

In 1899, Germany acquired from Spain, which was defeated in the war against the United States, the Caroline and Mariana Islands (except for Guam). The economic penetration of Germany into the Ottoman Empire and other countries of the Middle East began (concessions for the construction of railways were of particular importance). Africa was also not ignored, where Germany made its first colonial conquests back in the 1880s. In the first decades of the XX century. German diplomacy fought for the opportunity to participate in the colonial exploitation of Morocco, against the establishment of French domination in this country, but, despite the two Moroccan crises provoked by it, was forced to retreat.

social movements

The rapid industrial development of the countries of Europe and North America in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the growth of cities, and the increase in the proportion of workers and employees in the total population were accompanied by the expansion and activation of social movements. The goals of these movements were to defend the vital interests of various strata and groups of society.

The labor movement became more and more mass and organized. In the 90s of the XIX century. in most countries of Western Europe and the United States, the previously disparate trade union organizations united into national federations. This contributed to a noticeable increase in the number of trade unions. Thus, in the United States, the number of members of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) from 1886 to 1900 increased from 138 thousand to 868 thousand people, and in 1914 it reached 2 million, which accounted for about 10% of all American workers.

The traditional tasks of the trade union movement consisted in the struggle for the improvement of working conditions and the material well-being of workers. At the beginning of the XX century. for the workers of most countries, the demands for higher wages and the establishment of an 8-hour working day were relevant.

The figures show that there was something to fight for. For example, in the United States in 1914 the average working week was 54 hours. During the year, there were about 2 million accidents at work, every 16 minutes a worker died at the machine. Although nominal wages have risen by more than 30% in a year, prices have risen by 32% during this time, and taxes per capita have increased by 3.5 times. In other countries, the situation was no better. So, in Germany at the end of the XIX century. It was considered an achievement that the government introduced mandatory Sunday rest for workers, the working day for women was limited to 11 hours a day, and the work of children under 13 was prohibited in factories.

A characteristic feature of the labor movement during this period was the spread of anarcho-syndicalist ideas ("syndicate" is the French name for a trade union). Their followers rejected all forms of political domination (including the state) and political struggle. The main organization of the working class, according to their ideas, should be the trade union, the main form of struggle of the workers - "direct actions", that is, strikes, boycott, sabotage and the highest manifestation of the struggle - the general economic strike.

Figures and facts

The strike movement in European countries in 1900-1913.

France. The number of strikers: 1902 - over 200 thousand, 1904 - about 300 thousand, 1906 - 438 thousand people.

Great Britain. The number of strikers: 1905 - 93 thousand, 1906 - 217 thousand people. In 1912, a strike of miners was held, demanding that a minimum be officially established, below which wages could not fall. At the height of the strike, 1 million miners and another 1 million workers at related enterprises quit their jobs. The government was forced to adopt a compromise law "on a regional minimum" of wages.

Italy. For 1904 -1907. there was a general upsurge in the strike struggle. In 1906, a united trade union center was created - the General Confederation of Labor. In 1907, 576,000 people were on strike.

During the strike movement, the workers did not limit themselves to demands for higher wages and better working conditions. Their speeches increasingly sounded political slogans. This was due to the influence of socialist parties representing the political interests of working people.

In the socialist movement of many countries in the late XIX - early XX century. there was a unification of previously disparate parties and organizations. In France, for example, the strong fragmentation of the movement had to be overcome, in which the followers of J. Guesde, J. Jaurès and some other leaders represented special currents. In 1905 a united socialist party was created. In Great Britain, in 1900, a Workers' Representation Committee arose, the founders of which were trade unions (trade unions) and individual socialist parties. In 1906, the Labor Party took shape on the basis of the committee.

The unification of the socialist parties contributed to the strengthening of their positions. Representatives of the socialists increasingly entered the parliaments of their countries. Moreover, they have the opportunity to participate in the work of government bodies. One of the first cases of this kind was the entry in 1899 of the socialist A. Millerand into the French government as Minister of Trade and Industry. The Millerand Case received wide publicity, and the question of whether or not to join a bourgeois government caused heated debate (including at the Congress of the Second International in Paris in 1900) and even a split among the French socialists.

In relation to this event, fundamental differences were reflected on questions of strategy and tactics of struggle, the choice of a reformist or revolutionary path to achieve the goals that existed in the socialist movement. Some of its representatives, such as E. Bernstein, saw the possibility of a gradual "growing of capitalism into socialism" through reforms and expanding the social gains of the working people. Others - A. Bebel, K. Liebknecht, R. Luxemburg - advocated a socialist revolution, the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat and rejected any "agreement with the bourgeoisie." Still others - K. Kautsky, R. Hilferding and others - occupied an intermediate, centrist position. Disputes between supporters of these movements did not subside until the outbreak of the First World War. The events of the first decades of the 20th century more and more they transferred the existing disagreements from the field of theoretical discussions to the field of political practice and concrete actions, on which the fate of thousands of people depended.

Along with the industrial workers, other groups of workers also fought for their interests. in the United States since the end of the 19th century. the movement of farmers intensified. Uniting in "farmer alliances" (unions), they organized the storage and sale of their products, opposed the monopoly prices for transportation, established by railway corporations, and against land speculators. in Italy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. the movement of small-land peasants and laborers in the south of the country, in Sicily and other regions, reached a large scale.

Italian peasants refused to pay taxes, attacked municipalities (local authorities), landowners' estates. In the course of the struggle, peasant organizations - leagues - were created. In 1901, the National Federation of Working Peasants was formed. The protests of the peasants were ruthlessly suppressed by the police and government troops. In 1904, demonstrations of farm laborers on the islands of Sardinia and Sicily were shot, which caused a strike of protest by Italian workers.

France in 1907 was shocked by the performance of peasant winemakers. Finding themselves in a distressed economic situation, they demanded help from the government and refused to pay taxes.

The peasants united in the General Confederation of Winemakers, held several large demonstrations. During the suppression of unrest, one of the regiments sent by the government refused to shoot at the peasants. Only large military forces were able to restore order.

During this period, in France, the speeches of public servants became more frequent: teachers, postal workers, telegraph workers, railway workers. They sought an increase in their extremely low salary. In response, the government passed a law prohibiting civil servants from organizing trade unions and going on strike.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. the feminist movement was activated. Its participants opposed all sorts of restrictions on women. So, before the First World War, universal suffrage (which extended to women) existed only in Norway, Australia, and New Zealand. In France, for example, in the late XIX - early XX century. Three groups of the population did not have voting rights - women, the military and residents of the colonies.

In production, women received 1.5-2 times lower wages for equal work with men. Women were not equal with men in family relations. They were limited in their ability to higher education, become, for example, a doctor, a teacher at a university, a lawyer.

From the notes of Anna Martin, a member of the women's rights movement in England (1910):

“I get up at 4.45 am, clean up a bit and feed my husband breakfast. He must leave the house by 6 o'clock. Then I get the kids up and wash, give each a slice of bread and butter and leftover tea, and leave the oatmeal and sugar for Harry to cook for the others later (Harry is 10 years old). Then I make the beds and take younger child to Mrs. T. My work starts at 7 o'clock. At 8.30 a mug of tea is brought to us, and I eat the bread and butter I brought with me. I used to go home at lunchtime, but now my legs are so bad that I buy a halfpenny cup of coffee from the shop and eat the rest of what I brought from home. At 4:30 pm I have a cup of tea. Around 7 pm I am at home. I build a fire, feed my husband dinner and make beds. Then I mend or darn something, and I usually go to bed at 11 pm.”

The intolerance of the existing situation was especially acutely realized as women became more and more involved in labor and social activities. Women workers began to participate more actively along with men in the struggle to improve their financial situation. The middle class have been fighting for decades to give women the right to vote. The activists of this movement - the so-called suffragettes - staged rallies, publicly attacked officials who, in their opinion, prevented women from being given the right to vote, smashed glass in their homes, etc. When arrested for their actions, they went on hunger strikes in prison . Feminists managed to achieve their goals after the First World War.

Reformism at the beginning of the 20th century

The growth of actions of workers and other groups of workers in most countries of Europe and North America, the events of the Russian revolution of 1905-1907. pushed those in power to some concessions, transformations in social and political relations. In many European countries the first decade of the XX century. was the time of reforms that were carried out by the liberal forces that came to power.

One of the clearest examples of social reformism is the activity of liberal governments in Great Britain (1906-1916). The ideologist of this course was a popular public figure and outstanding politician D. Lloyd George.

David Lloyd George (1863-1945) born in the family of a poor teacher in Wales, lost his parents early. Unable to pay for education, he studied law on his own and began working in a law office. Having received a certain popularity, he achieved election to parliament, became a well-known leader of the Liberal Party. In December 1905 he joined the liberal government. In 1916-1922. was Prime Minister of Great Britain.

D. Lloyd George (left) and W. Churchill. 1908

The left wing of the Liberal Party, to which he belonged, tried to act as an intermediary between employers and workers. In 1906, a new law was adopted on compensation for workers injured in industrial accidents, in 1908 an 8-hour working day was established for miners. Pensions were introduced for certain groups of workers upon reaching the age of 70. The workers themselves called them "pensions for the dead", since it was difficult for hard-working people to live up to these years. Later there was a law on the social insurance of workers for sickness, disability and unemployment. In 1909, D. Lloyd George, as Minister of Finance, proposed a new budget (the distribution of income and expenses) of the country, which he himself called "people's". It allocated about 10 million pounds for social spending, it was planned to increase taxes on the wealthy segments of the population. However, in the same budget, almost four times more funds than for social needs were allocated to strengthen the navy. The "son of the people", as Lloyd George presented himself, served the empire and put its interests first.

in Italy in the first decade of the 20th century. a course of "progressive liberalism" was carried out, the ideologist of which was Giovanni Giolitti (1842-1928). He believed that the revolutionary onslaught of the "popular classes" could be averted if progressive social laws were adopted. Liberal governments restored previously abolished political freedoms, the right to form trade unions, increased restrictions on the use of child and female labor in industry, introduced a mandatory 6-year schooling. Improved labor laws. At the same time, liberals passed laws that abolished the right of railway workers, public servants to strike.

Attempts to resolve economic and social contradictions were made during this period in the United States as well. President Theodore Roosevelt (in office 1901-1909) launched a campaign against the abuse of monopolies. Laws were adopted in the field of protecting the country's natural resources, against the uncontrolled use of land and water resources. Quality control was introduced by special decrees food products and medicines to prevent abuse by manufacturing companies.

The transformations carried out in these countries dealt with various social problems. What they had in common was that they became possible thanks to many years of persistent struggle by many people. Reforms often turned out to be half-hearted, the real results did not always match the promises. But still, they expanded the rights of workers and democratic rights in general.

National relations and national issues

An important problem for many European countries in the early XX century. there were relations between the peoples inhabiting them. This concerned, first of all, the multinational empires that had developed over the centuries and were based on the subjugation of the dominant nation of other, as it was sometimes said, “small” peoples. But there are no small nations, each of them is significant because it is unique and wants to live on its land in accordance with its historical experience, values ​​and aspirations.

The 19th century was the century of the awakening of the national consciousness of the peoples that were part of the empire. This applied to both dominating and subjugated nations. In many European countries, these processes are called "national revival". They found a vivid expression in the development of national languages, literature and history, and artistic culture. The rise of spiritual life was accompanied by a noticeable progress in socio-economic development. In the European revolutions of 1848-1849. the national question sounded distinctly and strongly; there were heroes and victims here.

The ideas of civil rights and freedoms, social justice, which were spread and defended in the 19th century. various social movements, could not but be reflected in national relations. The national question began to be discussed more and more often in parliaments and political parties. However, the desire to justify and protect the rights of the people was often based on the idea of ​​their national exclusivity, superiority over others. This position led to extreme nationalism. History of the 20th century showed that it can manifest itself in both "great" and "small" peoples. Strengthening nationalist sentiments at the beginning of the 20th century. began to give rise to sharp and protracted conflicts.

Let us consider several situations in which the complexity of national relations in Europe at that time was reflected.

The largest multinational state in Central Europe was Austria-Hungary.

In the Austrian part of the state in the late XIX - early XX century. the “Czech issue” became especially acute. The Czech Republic was one of the most developed economically and social relations parts of the empire. The natural desire of the Czech bourgeoisie to secure a strong position in the economic and political life of the country was supplemented by a broad social movement of the Czechs for national equality. Unlike Hungary, the Czech lands in the XIX century. failed to achieve recognition of their independence within the empire. As a result, many Czech bourgeois politicians (the so-called "Young Czechs") went over to the opposition to the Vienna government. And since in the imperial parliament - the Reichsrat - the Austro-German deputies were a minority (43% of the votes), the opposition forces had the opportunity to practically paralyze its work.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. The issue of bilingualism became a stumbling block in German-Czech relations. A strong reaction was caused by the attempt of the Austrian government to introduce in 1897 in the Czech lands, where before that the official language was German (it was used in state institutions, the army, etc.), the second official language was Czech. Nationalist-minded German organizations in Austria and in the Czech Republic itself (the Germans living in the Sudetenland bordering Germany were especially active here) opposed this decision. Demonstrations of supporters and opponents of bilingualism were held in many cities. There were skirmishes between deputies in parliament, so the police had to intervene. Prime Minister K. Badeni, who signed the decision to introduce bilingualism, was challenged to a duel by a German nationalist and wounded in the arm. As a result of these events, the government resigned and parliament was dissolved. But the "Czech question" remained.

The situation was different in the Polish lands of the empire. Galicia, part of the population of which were Poles, had its own Sejm, the Polish language was recognized as the official language here. Aristocrats and the gentry supported the central government and held high positions in the imperial government. The Polish population of Galicia had more favorable conditions for national development than the Poles living in Germany and Russia. At the same time, the Ukrainian population of Galicia found itself under double oppression - from the Austrian authorities and the Polish landowners.

In Hungary, which in 1867 achieved the status of an independent part of the "dual" state, there were national problems of their own. On the one hand, the Hungarian Sejm (parliament) advocated the expansion of Hungary's independence, the introduction of an independent army, the establishment of a Hungarian national bank, for customs separation from Austria, etc. On the other hand, the unequal, oppressed position of the non-Hungarian population - Slovaks, Romanians, Rusyns, Croats, Slovenes, and others. It was especially complicated in connection with the proclamation of a "single Hungarian political nation."

In school education, the thesis was applied: "Only Hungarians live in Hungary." The authorities sought to reduce the number of non-Hungarian national schools and cultural and educational institutions. In 1907, the Hungarian language was introduced as the language of instruction in most of the "folk schools" (this was done even earlier in secondary schools). As a result, the schools of Slovaks and Transcarpathian Ukrainians were gradually "Magyarized".

National inequality, the policy of Magyarization caused different attitudes among people of non-Hungarian nationalities. Some preferred to adapt to the existing situation, others decided to fight against it. A particularly acute situation developed in Croatia, whose population was increasingly opposed to the subjugation of Hungary. At the beginning of the century, Croatia was constantly in a "state of emergency". In 1912, in response to the rise of the liberation movement, the Hungarian government dissolved the Croatian Sejm and suspended the constitution in Croatian territory.

The national contradictions that permeated the Austro-Hungarian state from top to bottom often overshadowed other problems. Even the Social Democratic Party of Austria at the end of the 19th century. split into six national parties: Austrian, Czech, Polish, Ukrainian, South Slavic and Italian. In the Czech lands, it was not uncommon for two trade union organizations, Czech and German, to operate at the same enterprise. National problems, difficult to resolve in peacetime, could be a serious threat to the integrity of the empire at the slightest shock.

During this period, not only multinational empires became the arena of national confrontation. Britain at the beginning of the 20th century. the Irish question made itself felt with new acuteness.

The stumbling block here was the demand for home rule (self-government) for Ireland. Attitudes towards him varied, often mutually exclusive. The Irish Parliamentary Party advocated for the achievement of self-government through legislation. Another position was taken by the Sinn Fein party (translated as “We ourselves”), founded in 1905 by a group of Irish politicians led by A. Griffith. She called for non-violent resistance to oppressors, including the recall of Irish parliamentarians from the House of Commons and the convening of a people's assembly, a boycott of English goods, etc. The Irish Socialist Party advocated the independence of Ireland. The most resolute positions were occupied by the Irish Republican Brotherhood, which was revived during these years, and sought to liberate Ireland by force of arms.

British conservatives and part of the Protestant population in Ireland itself opposed the granting of self-government to Ireland. They were mostly large landowners and entrepreneurs, descendants of the Anglo-Scottish conquerors of Ireland. They proposed to keep as part of the British kingdom, if not all of Ireland, then its northeastern part - Ulster. Supporters of this position were called unionists (from the word union - union). In 1912, the Liberal government attempted to push the Home Rule Act through Parliament. The Irish Unionists declared that they would not comply with this law, and gathered a well-armed volunteer corps. The officers of the government troops refused to obey the order to go to Ulster to suppress the Unionist rebellion (1914). On the other hand, the pro-Home Rule forces also created their own armed units. Faced with the threat of civil war in Ireland, the government refused to enact a Home Rule Act. The Irish question remained open.

References:
Aleksashkina L. N. / General History. XX - the beginning of the XXI century.